Religion, in its broadest sense, is a unified system of beliefs and feelings about someone or something sacred. These include the belief that there are forces or powers beyond human control, as well as codes of behavior about how people should treat others. In addition, many religions also involve a system of ritual and devotional practices. Several definitions of religion have been offered by philosophers, and there are some significant differences among them.
Ordinary language usage can be a source of confusion, especially because it tends to lump together different aspects of the concept, including some that are not orthodox religious teachings. Philosophers have tried to provide more careful definitions. Some have used a conceptual approach, and some have opted for an analytical approach. These approaches can be roughly categorized as substantive, functional, verstehende, or formal.
Substantive definitions rely on identifying some defining characteristic that distinguishes the object of the religion from other social phenomena. Some of these definitions are rather narrow, and they often have a cultural bias in their assumptions about what constitutes religion. Others are much broader in their scope, and they can include political ideologies as being analogous to religion.
One of the earliest substantive definitions was given by Tylor in 1871. He wanted to have a minimum definition that would prevent the classification of primitive religions with spiritualism, which was then in disrepute in Europe. He chose the term religion, which had favorable connotations, and he focused on beliefs that conceived of life as being animated by spirits. This one-sided emphasis on the cultic aspect of religion is a typical feature of nineteenth-century anthropology, and it should serve as a warning for today’s historian of religions.
The functional approach to the definition of religion attempts to identify a set of functions that can be fulfilled by a particular religion. The first of these is the function of providing moral guidance for behavior. The Judeo-Christian religions, for example, have a set of moral rules that are considered to be the foundation for good behavior.
Another function of religion is to help in the control of society by establishing a strong force against evil. This is the role played by the Judeo-Christian and Islamist religions, for example. It is the role that some other religions, such as Buddhism and Confucianism, also play, though to a lesser degree.
Finally, a religion may have an aesthetic dimension in that it evokes feelings of awe and reverence, and it is this last function that has most appealed to philosophers who have attempted to define religion. The idea of a higher power invokes the imagination, and the awareness that we are indebted to this power for our lives engenders a feeling of deep dependence and need. This, in turn, fosters hope and a desire for reconciliation with God. These emotions are not mere reactions to the immensity of the divine, but they have an objective basis in man’s experience of reality.